Taxonomic name: Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link
Synonyms: Ammannia coccinea purpurea (Lam.) Koehne , Ammannia teres (Raf.) , Arundo arenaria (Linnaeus), Calamagrostis arenaria (L.) Roth
Common names: ammophile des sables (French), barrón (Spanish), élyme des sables (French), European beachgrass (English), grama de las dunas (Spanish), helm (Danish), marram (English), marram grass (English), oyat (French), Peskoljubka Pescanaja (Russian), roseau des sables (French), sand-hjaelme (Dutch), sparto pungente (Italian), Strandhafer (German)
Organism type: grass Ammophila arenaria is a beach grass native to Europe, the Mediterranean, and coasts of the Black Sea which has become invasive in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand where it was introduced to stabilize sand dunes. Once established, it spreads by rigorous rhizome growth and dominates landscapes. It prohibits the regeneration of native grasses and alters habitats. It stabilizes sand dunes and allows for successional colonization. Management and removal of A. arenaria is possible but very costly. Description
Ammophila arenaria is a coarse, perennial grass with stout culms that may reach 120 cm tall. It has dense, spike-like panicles and long, sharp leaf blades. It has extensive and deep, scaly rhizomes (Green, 1965; Buell et al, 1995). Habitat description
European beachgrass grows best in mobile or semi-stable sand dunes. It thrives in wind-blown, foredune areas above the high tide line. It is highly adapted to sand accretion, growing vigorously with the continued addition of fresh sand and requiring it to flower. Burial by sand promotes elongation of the leaves and development of adventitious roots. It tolerates a range of soil pH from 4.5-9.0, soil temperatures from 10-40°C, and salt concentrations of no more than 1.5-2%. Native populations inhabit foredunes and active dunes alone and dunes further inland that have become more stable with other plants, since it loses its vigor as sands stabilize. In introduced habitats, it initiates the formation of foredunes and does so differently than native plants (Buell et al, 1995; Green, 1965; Russo et al, 1998). General impacts
Ammophila arenaria displaces native vegetation and prevents their re-establishment, stablilizes mobile sand dunes allowing the succession of other vegetation, and results in reduced biodiversity in introduced ecosystems. It has inflicted vast displacement of Leymus mollis, American dunegrass, and other native plants along the entire Pacific coast of the United States. It similarly displaces ten threatened, indigenous dune species including Desmoschoenus spiralis and Austrofestuca sp. in New Zealand. It has also been documented that it stabilizes and restructures mobile sand dunes which are critical to the physical development of coastal barriers on windward coasts. Mobile dune activity is also closely linked with dune habitat and species diversity, since such activity inevitably leads to topographic and environmental diversity. Its displacement of native plants, restructuring of geomorphology, and its allowance of successional colonization of other plants combine to dramatically alter habitats where it is introduced and result in a significant reduction in biodiversity. Such alteration of habitat has contributed to the reduction of federally threatened species the Western Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus) and the Monterey spineflower (Chorizanthe epungens var. pungens) in the US, as well as, the endangered Chatham Island oystercatcher (Haematopus chathamensis) in New Zealand. Invasions of A. arenaria have also been demonstrated to cause significant declines in borrowing arthropod populations in California (Aptekar & Rejmanek, 2000; Buell et al, 1995; Dixon et al, 2004; Hilton et al, 2005; Holloran & Hyland, undated; Pratt, 2001; Moore & davis, 2004).
A. arenaria's superior nutrient productivity, rapid seasonal growth, rapid multiplication of stems from underground buds, development of extensive root systems, and its rigid nature give it a competitive advantage that allow it to dominate most native beachgrasses where it is introduced. Its higher adaptability to sand accretion and tolerance to greater sand deposition than native plants also gives it a competitive advantage in conditions of human disturbance. Finally, some studies have concluded that in California, the accumulation of local pathogens by A. arenaria can result in exclusion of native plants species (Aptekar & Rejmanek, 2000; Green, 1965; Lubke & Hertling, 2001; Eppinga et al, 2006; Russo et al, 1988). Uses
Ammophila arenaria has been planted along coasts in many countries to stabilize sand dunes. Most of its introductions to new locations have resulted from such intentional introductions (Russo et al, 1988). Notes
In Europe, two different subspecies, which correspond to northern (ssp. arenaria) and southern (ssp. arundinacea) ecotypes, have long been recognized (Rodriguez-Echeverria et al, 2008) Geographical range
Native range: Ammophila arenaria is native to the coastal dunes of Europe between the latitudes 30 and 63 N (Pickart, 1997).
Known introduced range: A. arenaria has been introduced to many coasts for purposes of sand dune stabilization. It has been reported established throughout the west coast of North America, Southern Australia and New Zealand, South Africa, and Chile. Introduction pathways to new locations
Floating vegetation/debris: Rhizomes of Ammophila arenaria are commonly washed up by ocean currents to establish new colonies relatively close to existing populations. Rhizomes remain viable and buoyant in seawater for 22 to as many as 60 days. This dispersal method is an important means of alongshore dispersal. In a persistent surface current of 0.1m/s a rhizome would be capable of transporting 518 km a little over 60 days (Konlechner & Hilton, undated).
Landscape/fauna "improvement": Most introductions of Ammophila arenaria to new locations result from intentional planting to the stabilize sand dunes (Aptekar & Rejmanek, 2000).
Natural dispersal: Ammophila arenaria typically spreads locally through clonal, rhizomal reproduction (Buell et al, 1995).
Ship: Ammophila arenaria may be dispersed to new locations by the marine transport of dormant rhizomes, which can withstand submersion for long periods (Pickart, 1997). Reproduction
Ammophila arenaria primarily reproduces vegatatively both from rhizomes and small basal buds located at the base of stems under their lower leaf sheaths. It flowers from the end of June through August but rarley produces viable seeds. Seedlings have been found in nature but occure rarely. Seedlings that are observed usually live no longer than seven weeks. They are typically killed by small-scale sand erosion, desiccation, or burial. However, certain locations where water is retained by an impermeable layer of boulder clay, and the soil remains damp for rather long periods seedlings may establish. These conditions may be found at the foot of a leeward slope (Green, 1965; Aptekar & Rejmanek, 2000; Huiskes,1977). Lifecycle stages
Inflorescences are initiated in autumn of the second year after germination and mature in May or June. Flowering occurs from May to August. In Europe, anthesis occurs in July and August but has been reported as early as May. Mature fruits are dispersed in September, and seeds germinate in the following spring. The viability of seeds is very low, and it reproduces mainly vegetatively. Seedling survival is also low as a result of desiccation, burial, and/or erosion (Russo et al, 1988). Principal sources: Pickart, Andrea J. 1997. Control of European Beachgrass (Ammophila arenaria) on the West Coast of the United States. California Exotic Pest Plant Council, The Nature Conservancy Lanphere-Christensen Dunes Preserve Arcata, CA 95521.
Russo, Mary, Andrea Pickart, Larry Morse, and Rick Young., 1988. Element Stewardship Abstract for Ammophila arenaria European Beachgrass
USDA-ARS., 2008. Taxon: Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link. National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
Compiled by: National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII) & IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)
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Last Modified: Thursday, January 14, 2010
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